5 Communication Methods

The Multilingual Nature of the Deaf Community

By Janice Humphrey and Bob Alcorn

Sign language interpreters work with Deaf people who use a variety of sign communication modes. This is sometimes confusing and frustrating! Figure 4-2 demonstrates the spectrum of sign communication you might encounter when interacting with Deaf people in the United States and Anglophone Canada.

The spectrum moves from pure forms of ASL as it has evolved as a natural language to more prescriptive English-based systems such as Seeing Exact English and the Rochester Method. ‘The gradual shading indicates the lack of rigid divisions between the various forms of sign communication. The central portion of the graph indicates the fact that signed representations of English and American Sign Language come together at a mid-point, resulting in a mixing of ASL-based signing and English-based signing. The various mixtures found in this middle ground are referred to as contact varieties, which are discussed in-depth later in this chapter.

American Sign Language

Visual-Gestural languages are based on a structured set of linguistic rules in which the communication base is the movement of the hands, face and body, rather than sound. American Sign Language (ASL), is a naturally occurring visual-gestural language that adheres to specific linguistic rules. It emerged from within the Deaf community in the United States (with some influence from French Sign Language). As a visual-gestural language, it incorporates facial grammatical markers, physical affect markers, spatial linguistic information and fingerspelling, as well as a fairly uniform system of signed lexicon. It is a distinct language with its own grammar and syntax that is not based on, nor derived from, a spoken language. As a complete and complex language, accepted as tne natural language of the Deaf community, ASL is an integral part of Deaf culture. ASL has historically been mislabeled as “poor English”or “slang” and has been devalued by the education system.

Like all languages, ASL is used by members of a community for the purposes of social interaction, communication of ideas, sharing of emotions, and for the transmission of the group’s culture to following generations.’ All languages are made up of arbitrary symbols put together according to syntactic, phonological, semantic and pragmatic rules. ASL is no different. Further, as a living language, ASL changes over time to reflect the community of users.

While ASL is used by a majority of Deaf people in Canada and the US, it is not the only sign language, In Quebec, most Deaf people use La Langue de Signes Quebecoise, or LSQ. As well, in the far northeastern provinces of Canada, members of the Deaf community use Maritime Sign Language (MSL).^[1]

Sign Supported Speech

Sign Supported Speech (SSS) is a broad term used to refer to English-based signing systems which attempt to represent English in a manual/visual form, relying primarily upon the lexicon and syntax of English. All of these systems encourage the simultaneous use of spoken or mouthed English. You might also hear the term Manually Coded English, which is an earlier term for Sign Supported Speech.

There are several forms of manual English in use today, including the Rochester Method, Seeing Essential English (SEE¹), Signing Exact English (SEE²), Signed English (SE) and Conceptually Accurate Signed English (CASE).

Educators have invented a variety of English-based signing systems since the earliest recorded history in North America. The rationale for the evolution of these systems lay in the desire to provide early language stimulation to Deaf children.’ Ninety percent of all Deaf children have parents who are not Deaf’ and who are, therefore, not familiar with or fluent in American Sign Language (ASL). As a result, Deaf children are often not exposed to any accessible language during the critical early language-learning years of their development. Further, even if the parents were fluent in ASL, it was felt that a knowledge of English was still needed to function fully in our society; thus the invention of these coded manual systems of English.⁵

The Rochester Method^[2]

The Rochester Method is a system in which each word is fingerspelled with the exception of the word “and’; which is signed. This is a very precise manual representation of English. However, because it is slow, cumbersome and visually tiring, the Rochester Method is rarely used today in either the U.S. or in Canada.

Seeing Essential English

Seeing Essential English (SEE¹ ) evolved from a 1966 experiment, led by David Anthony, to teach English to mentally retarded Deaf adults in Michigan.⁶ This work continued in California with several individuals who embraced the experiment and sought to broaden its application to the education of Deaf children and adults.⁷ Anthony explained the system in the following way:

The major drawback of the American Sign Language has been that it has followed Its own syntax and developed its own idioms … Using the American Sign Language as a base, [we] added verb tenses and appropriate endings, noun, adjective, and adverb suffixes and prefixes; and signs for words such as articles for which there have been no signs before … The exciting development is a system of signs that permits us to have one sign for each word, and of the utmost importance, allows us to use the Ianguage of signs in the correct patterns of English syntax.⁸

The resulting system was based on a separate sign or movement for each “word root” (either words or syllables)⁹. In this system, the word “butterfly” is made up of three signs or movements (lbut-2er-3fly), one for each syllable. No consideration is given to conceptual accuracy. “Ihus, the word “carpet” is signed with two movements, the first indicating an automobile (“car”) and the second, the action of petting something (“pet”). English grammatical structure is adhered to strictly in SEE¹. Accordingly, signs for prefixes and suffixes have been invented, as have movements to indicate English verb conjugations. Prepositions and English conjunctions are signed. English sequencing and textual formation are followed. According to proponents, the rationale behind the system is to offer Deaf children an opportunity to learn English in a natural, visual form.^[3]

The original group of individuals who developed the SEE¹ system eventually split into three main groups due to geographical spread, differences of opinion concerning the application of system, and differences of opinion about the best way to present the signs in written form. ‘The popularity of this system has waned significantly. However, there are still a few pockets in the United States where SEE¹ is used extensively.’

Signing Exact English

Signing Exact English (SEE²), grew out of SEE¹ and was developed primarily by Gustason, Zawalkow, and Pfetzing. SEE² is based on several principles. One rule is tl1at “English should be signed in a manner that is as consistent as possible with how it is spoken/written.¹⁰ This means that phrases such as ‘get the run around: ‘cut it out; or ‘stop horsing around’ would be signed as those exact words. Another principle is that “a sign should be translatable to only one English equivalent”.¹¹ Thus, although an English word such as “run” has numerous meanings and a number of different translations in ASL, a single sign would be used for that word in all sentence constructions. 1his is based on the “two-out-of-three” rule, wherein each English word is checked against the following criteria: sound, meaning, and spelling. If a word is the same in two out of three criteria, it will be signed the same way in all contexts, regardless of meaning¹².

According to Moores,¹³ the outcome was that sound and spelling took precedence over meaning. In this system, the word “consume” would be signed TO EAT, therefore the term “consumer” would be signed, in essence EATER. ‘Thus, the sentence “I am a consumer of interpreter services” would be signed “I am an eater of interpreter services.” This, of course, presents a very inappropriate conceptual message. However it meets the two-out-of-three rule and is therefore the sign used within this system. While no consideration is given to conceptual accuracy, if an ASL sign exists that commonly translates to one English word, it will be used rather than inventing new movements. “Butterfly;’ for example, is signed b y using the ASL sign butterfly. Like SEE¹, this system adheres carefully to English grammatical structure, and incorporates invented signs for prefixes, suffixes, and verb conjugations. In addition to English sequencing and textual formation, English prepositions and conjunctions are signed.

Finally, synonyms are created by adding a finger spelled letter to the root sign. For example, a “C” handshape is added to the root sign of “make” to produce the concept of “create,” a “P” hand shape is added to the same root sign for the concept of produce:’

The word RUN sounds the same and is spelled the same. In SEE² , it Is therefore signed the same way (to run as in moving your feet fast along the ground) in each of the following sentences.

• • I will run the marathon.
  • He will run for the position of Mayor.
  • I have a run in my nylons.

Signed English

This is a system of signs designed in the early 1980’s for use with preschool children. It was based on the argument that an alternative to ASL was necessary for the following reasons:

1. ASL is not used in aver 90 percent of the homes of Deaf children enrolled in programs for the Deaf;
2. it is not possible to simultaneously speak English and sign ASL;
3. ASL has no written form; and
4. people in the United States do not readily learn second languages.¹⁴

Based on this premise, the originators developed a system that denounced the two-out-of-three rule and instead created fourteen “sign markers” which can be added to signs to more accurately represent English. In addition , where no ASL equivalent existed, signs were invented. ‘iliere are 3,000 entries in the Comprehensive Signed English Dictionary,¹⁵ 1,300 of which the authors made up.¹⁶ In this system, like SEE², all prepositions, conjunctions, prefixes, suffixes, and verb forms, follow the structure of English rather than ASL.

Conceptually Accurate Signed English

Conceptually Accurate Signed English ( CASE) is a term that has evolved primarily among interpreters. This term refers to the use of signs that are selected based on the meaning of the idea being conveyed. Thus, unlike the systems described above, meaning has primary importance and signs are selected to convey the intended concept or meaning. These conceptually accurate signs are produced in English word order and are usually accompanied by inaudible mouthing of the English words. However, certain features of ASL are also incorporated to make more visual sense. For example, in the sentence “My mom baked a cake and we consumed it in two hours;’ the word 11consumed” means ate rapidly. The sign chosen and the way it is executed would convey both the verb and adverbial meaning.

In the conceptually accurate approach (CASE), a different sign would be used for the word “make” in each of the following sentences in order to show the intended meaning of the word in context.

• • I will make dinner.
  • Go make your bed.
  • Did you make that coat rack?

Bragg¹⁷ refers to this type of signing as the Anglicization of American Sign Language and argues that this is a natural progression in the evolution of ASL. Others believe this is another form of Sign Supported Speech.

Contact Varieties in Sign Language Communication

When two language groups have long, sustained contact with each other there are predictable results. Linguistic variations start to emerge in which words, phrases, grammatical structures and other features of each language are mixed with the other. Some of the processes behind this phenomenon include code switching, code mixing and lexical borrowing.18 When linguistic research in ASL began to reveal variations between ASL and English-based signing, it was referred to as Pidgin Sign English (PSE). PSE has been defined as a natural blending of English and ASL which has developed over the years to provide rudimentary communication between Deaf and hearing people.¹⁹ However, several researchers have pointed out that what has been called PSE is not really a true pidgin at all.²⁰

Cokely,²¹ an interpreter, linguist and educator, describes it as a situation in which members of the Deaf community communicate with hearing people in a “foreigner tallc” register of ASL and members of the hearing community communicate with Deaf people in a foreigner talk register of English. The variation along the ASL-English continuum can be accounted for by the dynamic interplay of “foreigner-talk;’ mutual judgments of each other’s proficiency, and learners’ attempts to master the target language – whether this is ASL for hearing users or English for Deaf users.

There are some forms of blending English-based signs and ASL that are more English-like in syntax and vocabulary and other forms that are more ASL-like. Some people say this blended form of English and ASL is simply a modern variety of ASL – the Anglicization of ASL as it evolves in a bilingual community.²² If true, this might explain why some Deaf individuals choose to sign in this blended form on a regular basis. Others say this blended form is simply a less correct form of ASL. 1hose who subscribe to this opinion state that what is actually occurring is that someone is attempting to sign ASL but they have not yet mastered the more complex elements of the language. This limited mastery of the language results in a combination of English-like and ASL-like characteristics. For information about the features of contact varieties identified to date and areas still requiring research, we recommend “Language Contact in the American Deaf Community:.,,

Others That aren’t on the Chart

In the preceding paragraphs, we have discussed the various forms of sign communication that appear in Fig. 4-2. However, there are other forms of communication you may encounter in the Deaf community that you need to be aware of.

Foreign Sign Languages

Each country has its own indigenous sign language used by Deaf people living in that country. As these people relocate to Canada and the United States, they bring with them their indigenous sign languages, You may encounter Mexican Sign Identity and Communication In the Deaf Community Language, Russian Sign Language, or any number of other foreign sign languages. There are also a variety of fingerspelling systems, most of which are based on the written form of the language in the country of origin. Not all immigrants will bring a formal sign language with them. In some countries, people who are Deaf are required to speak and use speech reading. They have not been introduced to the sign language of their country. In other countries, people who are Deaf are extremely marginalized and, as a result, have limited access to education or the interaction with other Deaf people. While indigenous visual language will emerge in locations where Deaf people have opportunities to do so (in Deaf families and larger metropolitan areas), isolated individuals do not have an opportunity to learn their native sign language.

Home Signs and Gestures

You may encounter some Deaf people who have never learned a formal sign language, but who manage quite well with home signs. 24 This is a system of pantomime, gestures and manual signals used within the family and with close family friends to support communication and interaction. Home sign systems are usually idiosyncratic, varying from family to family. However, in some native cultures, oral communication is not emphasized for either Deaf or hearing children. In these communities, some very complex home sign systems can emerge.

Minimal Language Skills

Some Deaf individuals have not developed competency or skill in any language – spoken, written or signed. This sometimes occurs because an individual has been educationally or socially deprived and has never had an opportunity to develop language skills. Some Deaf people are educationally deprived due to the reluctance or refusal of their families to send them to school. Often, these individuals stay at home and develop a usable system of home signs but never learn a formal language of any kind. Even if the Deaf child does attend school, educational deprivation may occur if the school system fails to teach the child. Identity and Communication In the Deaf Community Tragically, Deaf children are sometimes passed from grade to grade without ever developing educational or communicative competence. The absence of language may also result from a developmental disability that makes the individual unable to learn a language. Typically, people who are linguistically delayed are also behind in their social development because they have not had adequate opportunities to learn societal norms, cultural values, or appropriate ways of interacting with others.

Whatever the reason, people who fit the descriptions above are referred to as having minimal language competency (MLC) or minimal language skills (MLS). Historically, they have also been referred to as “low verbal:’ This is an obsolete term and should not be used because it is derogatory and negative. Some people prefer the term semi-lingual” or high visual orientation (HVO)27 but these terms are not yet widely accepted. Techniques to communicate with people who have minimal language skills include gestures, mime, drawings and pictures. However, the communication that takes place in such a situation lacks the precision and specificity of communication that takes place when people use structured, rule-governed languages. Often, the most effective way to approach interactions with MLS clients is the inclusion of a Deaf individual who is skilled in the use and adaptation of visual-gestural communication.

Oral Communication Systems

Some deaf people don’t use sign language. Instead, they prefer to speech-read and use their own speech to communicate with others. Speech-reading is a skill involving a combination of deciphering lip, cheek, and throat movements, clarifying gestures’ and use of contextual clues to determine meaning. Oral Deaf interpreters work with hearing interpreters for a range of reasons, one of which is to support communication when the Deaf individual involved has limited or non-standard ASL skills, Moving your hands as if swinging a baseball bat, for example, when enunciating.

Identity and Communication In the Deaf Community deaf individuals subscribe to the norms of the hearing majority and rarely interact with culturally Deaf individuals. Deaf individuals who exclusively use speech and speech-reading to communicate usually function without an interpreter, particularly in one-to-one situations. However, in some settings it is hard to speech-read due to the distance from the speaker, poor lighting, rapid turn taldng, or a variety of other factors.” In these settings, some oral deaf individuals use the services of an oral transliterator to silently repeat what is being said in a way that the message can be speech-read. Some people who use speech-reading use a hand system based on phonetics known as cued speech; to support their attempts to perceive spoken language. Cued speech consists of eight handshapes for consonants and four positions near the face representing vowels. Combinations of these hand configurations and face placements are used to make visible every syllable being spoken. Cued speech transliterators sometimes work in educational settings.

Deaf Blind Variations

Finally, there is a population of individuals who are both unable to see (due to visual deterioration, disease of the eye, etc.) or hear. When these characteristics come together, adaptive communication techniques are required”. The hearing loss of DeafBlind people may range from slightly hard of hearing to profoundly Deaf. The vision may also range from partially sighted to totally blind. The largest percentage of people who are Deaf B!ind were born Deaf and lost their vision later, typically as a result of Usher’s Syndrome. People with Type I Usher’s Syndrome are born with a severe-to-profound hearing loss which is often accompanied by balance problems. They typically learn sign language and become members of the Deaf community before losing their sight. People with Type II Usher’s Syndrome are born with mild to profound hearing loss and typically use speech and speech reading for communication prior to losing their sight,30

The second largest group of people who are Deaf-Blind are those with both visual and hearing loss at birth. This may be due to the mother’s illness or exposure to toxic substances that cause neurological damage to the child in-utero. Individuals in this group often have complicating physical conditions including heart problems, respiratory disorders and diabetes, Some people in this category learn sign language; others do not, One Deaf-Blind advocate has noted that “Deaf-Blindness creates greater dependence on others and unique problems of communication, mobility and orientation that must be solved by using special methods and techniques.”31 1here are several ways to communicate with a person who is Deaf-Blind. Those most relevant for sign language interpreters include:

Sign Language

This is effective with individuals who used sign language prior to the deterioration of their vision and who still have some vision remaining. This method usually requires that the signer wear clothing with the greatest contrast to his or her skin color and sign in a space of approximately 8″x 8″ square in the middle of the chest. It may also mean positioning oneself a bit closer to or further away from the Deaf-Blind person in order to place yourself in his or her field of vision,

Tactile signs

A number of people who grew up Deaf and later became blind have adapted to “reading” ASL tactilely by placing their hands lightly on top of the hands of the person who is signing to them. This requires the signer to sign in a smaller space than usual and to incorporate information manually that ASL usually embeds visually (such as grammatical and affect markers).

Fingerspelling

Some Deaf-Blind people prefer to have things spelled out in one of several fingerspelling systems. This may mean using the ASL alphabet, the British two-handed alphabet or a system of outlining letters in one’s palm.

When communicating with a person who is Deaf-Blind, it is important to be aware of environmental factors – people moving about, who is speaking to whom, people leaving the room, etc. This information needs to be conveyed to the Deaf-Blind person you are communicating with. If you want to be an interpreter,you need to do additional reading on this subject. Several excellent texts are provided at the end of this chapter. The best place to develop skill and comfort in working with Deaf-Blind is in the Deaf-Blind community itself. Local agencies often provide training for volunteers in guiding and communication techniques.

Summary

If you want to be an interpreter, you must become familiar with the wide range of individuals who are deaf and hard of hearing you are likely to encounter. It is important to respect each individual’s choices regarding how they refer to themselves (Deaf, hard of hearing, etc.) As well, it is critical for interpreters to develop a range of communication skills, supporting their ability to work with individuals using ASL, as well as those using contact varieties and English-based signs. Finally, developing communication strategies for working with foreign deaf, minimal language and Deaf-Blind individuals is critical. This often involves working with Deaf interpreters.

Credit

Pages 88-102 in Humphrey ,J.H. & Alcorn, B. J. (2007). So you want to be an interpreter? An introduction to sign language interpreting (4^th edition). H & H Publishing.