Nutrients

Our bodies require dozens of different chemicals found in food to help us maintain optimal health. These chemicals are called nutrients , and the study of how these chemicals interact with each other and with our bodies is called nutrition. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. We consume our favorite foods and beverages (and sometimes our not so favorites) in an attempt to gain all of the necessary nutrients to achieve or maintain our health. Sometimes we also consume supplements in addition to foods to be sure we are getting all of the required nutrients.

Although all nutrients are important, scientists categorize some as essential. The word essential means we have to have it, however, in nutrition the word essential also means we have to obtain it from an outside source, from foods or beverages. In other words, an essential nutrient is one we need that we have to consume. Non-essential nutrients are also necessary and vital for good health, but these nutrients can be made by the body in sufficient amounts as long as adequate essential nutrients are consumed, and don’t necessarily need to be a part of our daily dietary intake. Sometimes a formerly non-essential nutrient may become conditionally essential. This means that under normal circumstances a person could manufacture what they need, but if, for example, they are taking a certain medication or have a medical condition that modifies their ability to make the nutrient, then they must consume it.

Nutrients are used to help us produce energy, detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce. To make it easier to study nutrients, we combine those that have similar properties or functions into groups or “classes.” There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These classes are carbohydrates, protein, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals.

Classes of Nutrients and their Basic Functions
Nutrient Class Basic Functions
Carbohydrates Provide a ready source of energy for the body and provide structural constituents for the formation of cells.
Protein Necessary for tissue formation, cell repair, production of hormones/enzymes/neurotransmitters. Essential for building muscle and a healthy immune system.
Lipids Provide stored energy for the body, functions as structural components of cells, and also as signaling molecules for proper cellular communication. Provides insulation to vital organs and works to maintain body temperature.
Vitamins Regulate body processes and promote normal body system functions.
Minerals Regulate body processes, necessary for proper cellular function, and comprise body tissue.
Water Transports essential nutrients to all body parts, transports waste products for disposal, and aids with body temperature maintenance.

Macronutrients

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients. There are four classes of macronutrients: carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and water. Of these macronutrients, three (carbohydrate, protein, and lipids) can be metabolically processed into cellular energy and thus are called energy nutrients. The energy from macronutrients comes from their chemical bonds. This chemical energy is converted into cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that is then utilized to perform work, allowing our bodies to conduct their basic functions. Water is also a macronutrient in the sense that you require a large amount of it, but unlike the other macronutrients it does not yield calories.

The Macronutrients: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Water. This figure illustrates each nutrient’s chemical structure and examples of food sources. Credit: Basic Concepts in Nutrition Introduction in Human Nutrition by University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program, CC BY License.

A unit of measurement of food energy is the calorie (denoted with a small “c”). A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of water 1° Celsius. On nutrition food labels and in the field of nutrition the amount given for “Calories” is actually equivalent to each calorie multiplied by one thousand. A kilocalorie or kcal (one thousand calories, denoted with a small “c”) is synonymous with the “Calorie” (with a capital “C”). When you see Calories on nutrition food labels it is equal to kcal (Calorie = kcal). Therefore you can use “kcal” to denote amounts of energy from food (as we have done throughout this text).

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Any molecule that contains carbon atoms is considered an organic molecule. This use of the term organic refers only to the molecule’s chemical composition and is different from the use of the term organic in relation to how foods are grown. The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy. The major food sources of carbohydrates are grains, milk, fruits, and starchy vegetables like potatoes. Non-starchy vegetables like broccoli or kale also contain carbohydrates, but in lesser quantities. Carbohydrates are almost exclusively found in plant-based foods. Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two forms based on their chemical structure: simple and complex.

One gram (g) of carbohydrates yields 4 kcal of energy for the cells in the body to perform work. In addition to providing energy and serving as building blocks for bigger macromolecules, carbohydrates are essential for proper functioning of the nervous system, heart, and kidneys.

All carbohydrates are made up of building blocks called monosaccharides, the most common monosaccharide is glucose. Some carbohydrates such as table sugar or honey are made of just two monosaccharides, so are called simple carbohydrates. Other carbohydrates are made up of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides, and are called complex. Glucose can be stored for future use. In animals including humans, the storage molecule of carbohydrates is called glycogen and in plants it is known as starch. Glycogen and starches are complex carbohydrates, as is dietary fiber.

Proteins

Proteins are organic molecules composed of chains of amino acids. Amino acids are simple sub-units composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The food sources of proteins are meats, dairy products, seafood, and a variety of different plant-based foods, most notably soy. The word protein comes from a Greek word meaning “of primary importance,” which is an apt description of these macronutrients; they are also known colloquially as the “workhorses” of life. Proteins provide 4 kcal of energy per g; however providing energy is not protein’s most important function. Proteins provide structure to bones, muscles and skin, they make up hormones, enzymes, neurotransmitters, and molecules important in immunity, and play a role in conducting most of the chemical reactions that take place in the body. Scientists estimate that greater than 20,000 different proteins exist within the human body.

Lipids

Lipids are also a family of organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but unlike carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water. Lipids are found predominantly in butter, oils, meats, dairy products, nuts, and seeds, and in many processed foods. The three main types of lipids are triglycerides (or triacylglycerols), phospholipids, and sterols. The main job of lipids is to store energy. Lipids provide more energy per g than carbohydrates or protein (9 kcal per g of lipids versus 4 kcal per g of carbohydrates/protein). In addition to energy storage, lipids serve as components of cell membranes, surround and protect organs, aid in temperature regulation, and regulate many other functions in the body.

Water

There is one other nutrient that we must consume in large quantities: water. Water does not contain carbon, making it an inorganic molecule. It is composed of two hydrogen (H2) and one oxygen (O) per one molecule of water. More than 60% of your total body weight is water. Without it, nothing could be transported in or out of the body, chemical reactions would not occur, organs would not be cushioned, and body temperature would fluctuate widely. On average, an adult consumes just over two liters of water per day from food and drink. According to the “rule of threes,” a generalization supported by survival experts, a person can survive three minutes without oxygen, three days without water, and three weeks without food. Since water is so critical for life’s basic processes, the amount of water input and output is supremely important. However, water does not provide any kcal. So it is considered a macronutrient, but not an energy nutrient.

Alcohol is not considered a nutrient, although it is a source of kcal. Remember that a nutrient is something that is necessary for body functioning and overall health. Alcohol does not meet that definition of a nutrient. Alcohol itself provides approximately 7 kcal for every g consumed. In addition to alcohol, many alcoholic drinks contain additional kcal from other nutrient classes—especially carbohydrates.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are nutrients required by the body in very small amounts, but are still essential for carrying out bodily functions. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins. There are 13 essential vitamins and 16 minerals (see Table 1.3.2 and Table 1.3.3 for a complete list and their major functions). In contrast to carbohydrates, protein, and lipids, micronutrients are not directly used for making energy and do not contain kcal, but they assist in the process of energy production as part of enzymes (i.e., coenzymes). Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body and are involved in all aspects of body functions from producing energy, to digesting nutrients, to building macromolecules. Micronutrients play many roles in the body.

Vitamins

The 13 vitamins are categorized as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, B6, biotin, folate and B12. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body such as making red blood cells, synthesizing bone tissue, and playing a role in normal vision, nervous system function, and immune system function.

Vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems. For example, a deficiency in niacin causes a disease called pellagra, which was common in the early twentieth century in some parts of America. The common signs and symptoms of pellagra are known as the “4D’s—diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.” Until scientists found out that better diets relieved the signs and symptoms of pellagra, many people with the disease ended up in asylums awaiting death. The deficiency of other vitamins was found to cause other disorders and diseases such as scurvy (vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), and rickets (vitamin D).

Vitamins and Their Major Functions
Vitamins Major Functions
Water-soluble
Thiamin (B1) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Riboflavin (B2) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Niacin (B3) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Pantothenic acid (B5) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
B6 (Pyroxidine) Coenzyme, amino acid synthesis assistance
Biotin (B7) Coenzyme
Folate (B9) Coenzyme, essential for growth
B12 (Cobalamin) Coenzyme, red blood cell synthesis
C Collagen synthesis, antioxidant
Fat-soluble
A Vision, reproduction, immune system function, antioxidant
D Bone and teeth health maintenance, immune system function
E Antioxidant, cell membrane protection
K Blood clotting, bone and teeth health maintenance

Minerals

Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on how much of them we need. Trace (minor) minerals such as molybdenum, selenium, zinc, iron, and iodine, are only required in a few milligrams (mg) or less per day while major minerals such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and phosphorus, are required in hundreds of mg. Like vitamins, minerals do not contain kcal. Many minerals are critical for enzyme function, others are used to maintain fluid balance, build bone tissue, synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract and relax muscles, and protect against harmful free radicals.

Minerals and Their Major Functions
Minerals Major Functions
Major
Sodium Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Chloride Fluid balance, stomach acid production
Potassium Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Calcium Bone and teeth health maintenance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, blood clotting
Phosphorus Bone and teeth health maintenance, acid-base balance
Magnesium Protein production, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Sulfur Protein production
Trace/Minor
Iron Carries oxygen, assists in energy production
Zinc Protein and DNA production, wound healing, growth, immune system function
Iodine Thyroid hormone production, growth, metabolism
Copper Coenzyme, iron metabolism
Selenium Antioxidant
Chromium Assists insulin in glucose metabolism
Manganese Coenzyme
Molybdenum Coenzyme
Fluoride Bone and teeth health maintenance, tooth decay prevention

To review, the dozens of nutrients that the body requires are grouped into six classes based on form and function. Below is a summary of the characteristics of the six nutrient classes.

Summary of Nutrient Class Characteristics
Class of Nutrient Macro- or Micronutrient Organic Nutrient (contains carbon) Energy Nutrients
Carbohydrates Macro Yes Yes – 4 kcal/g
Protein Macro Yes Yes – 4 kcal/g
Lipids Macro Yes Yes – 9 kcal/g
Vitamins Micro Yes No
Minerals Micro No No
Water Macro No No

Food Energy

As discussed previously, food energy is measured in Calories and commonly referred to as kcal. Though this is only the first chapter you have already seen the words “kcal” and “energy” used several times. In everyday life you have probably heard people talk about how many calories (kcal) they burned on the treadmill or how many calories are listed on a bag of chips. Kcal are a measure of energy. It takes quite a lot of kcal (energy) to keep us alive. Even if a person is in a coma, they still burn approximately 1000 kcal of energy every day in order for their heart to beat, their blood to circulate, their lungs to breathe, etc. We burn even more kcal when we exercise. A food’s kcal are determined by putting the food into a bomb calorimeter, heating it, and measuring the energy output (energy = heat produced). The carbohydrates, proteins, and fats we eat and drink provide these kcal for us (and alcohol as well if we choose to consume it).

A bomb calorimeter.
A bomb calorimeter. A sample is placed in the center and heated until it burns. The heat is transferred to the surrounding water, and the temperature rise of the water corresponds with the amount of heat calories generated by the sample. Bomb calorimeter by Lisdavid89, via CC BY-SA 3.0

 

Food Quality

Diagram showing typical versions of food items such as pinto beans, fried chicken, creamed spinach and peaches in syrup and their more nutrient-dense counterparts such as low sodium pinto beans baked chicken with herbs, steamed spinach, and fresh or frozen peaches without added sugars
Typical versus nutrient-dense foods. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010, by U.S. Department of Agriculture, via Public Domain

One measurement of food quality is the amount of nutrients it contains relative to the amount of energy it provides. High quality foods are nutrient dense, meaning they contain many nutrients relative to the amount of calories they provide. A food with high nutrient density would have a large amount of various beneficial nutrients in each “bite” of that particular food. Because “bites” are different for everyone, we use common measures such as gram (g), ounce (oz), cup (c), pound (lb), liter (L), tablespoon (tbs), etc. to help us compare different foods. (See common measures used in Appendix 1). Determining nutrient density of a food is not straightforward. One must consider the nutrient profile of a food as a whole, and it can be quite subjective. However, it is generally agreed that whole fruits and vegetables, 100% whole grains, nuts, and legumes tend to have high nutrient density. Food quality is additionally associated with its taste, texture, appearance, microbial content, and how much consumers like it.

Another measure of food quality is to examine the number of kcals in a food relative to the size of each “bite.” The term used to describe this is energy density or calorie density. Foods high in fats and sugars, like fast food burgers, pizza, candy bars, etc. would be considered energy dense since they provide many calories per bite but are typically lacking several essential vitamins, minerals, and other beneficial nutrients like fiber. We can compare the energy density of different foods if we know the number of kcals and the size of a serving for each.

Examples of the calories found in nutrient-dense food choices compared with calories found in less nutrient-dense forms of these foods . The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010, by U.S. Department of Agriculture, via Public Domain

A third term often used to describe food quality is “empty calorie.” Foods such as carbonated sugary soft drinks provide many calories, but very few, if any, beneficial nutrients, making the calories “empty.”

We can compare meals to examine food quality:

Let’s say we have a choice between two different breakfasts depicted in the images below. Each breakfast contains 500 kcal. But breakfast #2 provides many more nutrients inthose 500 kcal than do the donuts. There are several different vitamins and minerals in the two types of berries and in the spinach. These fruits and vegetable also contain fiber, and there is lean protein in the eggs. The donuts in breakfast #1 contain 500 kcal as well, but those kcals are primarily fat and sugar. There are very few vitamins or minerals in the donuts, and almost no fiber or protein. Therefore, breakfast #2 is more nutrient dense.

We can also compare the energy density of the two breakfasts. Because we know the weights of the two (in grams) and that both contain 500 kcal, we can calculate the energy density of each breakfast.

Energy density of breakfast #1: 500 kcal/135 g = 3.7 kcal per gram of food

Energy density of breakfast #2: 500 kcal/350 g = 1.4 kcal per gram of food

Breakfast #1 has more than 2.5 times as many kcal per gram of food than breakfast #2. Therefore breakfast #1 has higher energy density.

Breakfast #1 is three powdered sugar donuts. These donuts weigh 135 grams and contain 500 kcal
Breakfast #1 is three powdered sugar donuts. This breakfast weights 135 g and is 500 kcal. Donuts by Salim Virji, via CC BY-SA 4.0
Breakfast #2 with two scrambled eggs with 1/2 cup of fresh spinach and 1 tablespoon of fresh parmesan cheese, 1 cup blackberries, and 1 cup strawberries. This breakfast is 350 g and has 500 kcal.
Breakfast #2 with two scrambled eggs with 1/2 cup of fresh spinach and 1 tablespoon of fresh parmesan cheese, 1 cup blackberries, and 1 cup strawberries. This breakfast is 350 g and has 500 kcal. Image by 3025332, via Pixabay License

Super Foods

Often you see lists of “Super Foods” on the internet or in magazines. These superfoods (also called “functional foods”) are generally understood to be a food, or a food ingredient, that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains.[1] These functional foods tend to be whole (not processed) vegetables and fruits like kale or Swiss chard, legumes, or berries, or animal foods like cold water fish. They are considered highly nutritious because they contain not only beneficial nutrients, but also additional beneficial chemical compound(s) that are not nutrients (also called non-nutritive).Phytochemicals are non-nutritive chemical compounds found in plants (phyto) that provide characteristics to the plant like color, taste, smell. They are found in the edible parts of plants, especially the skin or peel. However, these plant chemicals are also believed to provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients. According to the Harvard Medical School, it is estimated that about 5,000 have been identified so far, but we don’t yet know what they all do.[2] General categories of phytochemicals include (but are not limited to) carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenols.

Diets rich in fruits and vegetables have been associated with decreased risk of chronic diseases. Many fruits and vegetables are rich in phytochemicals, especially when consumed whole, leading some to hypothesize that phytochemicals are responsible for the decreased risk of chronic diseases. The role that phytochemicals play in health is still in the early stages of research. But you may be able to reduce your risk of chronic disease by consuming high amounts of whole fruits and vegetables to raise your intake of these phytochemicals. However, benefits seem to only come from the plant itself, and not from dietary supplements containing the phytochemical.

references

Chapter 1, section 1.3 from Consumer Nutrition by Megan Grimsley and Susan Kazen published in 2021 under a CC BY-NC-SA license.


  1. Klemm, S. (2019, July 15). Functional foods. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. https://www.eatright.org/food/nutrition/healthy-eating/functional-foods
  2. Harvard Health Letter. (2019, February). Fill up on phytochemicals. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/fill-up-on-phytochemicals
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