3

For reflection

  • What problems do students bring to you when they are working on group projects?
  • What instruction do you give students to help prevent these issues?

Incorporate Teaching on Team Processes into Your Course

“What we know… successful teamwork happens when instructors actively provide instruction on the skills and processes for working collaboratively” (Channon et al., 2017).  What might teaching on team processes include?

  • An initial instructional session on teams and teamwork
  • Initial activities to help teams develop their roles and working procedures (team charters and team contracts)
  • Scaffolded assignment guidelines that include the process steps to be achieved, and how teams can work together towards creating the product
  • Peer and self-assessment mechanisms to guide the process

This chapter introduces the first part of the process, which includes theory and concepts about team life that may be valuable to teach to students in the first part of their orientation to team projects.

Content for Initial Teamwork Sessions

Much of what we consider to be good team process is implicit; we assume that students know how to work in a team, but rarely teach them about the elements of well-functioning, interdependent teams. Content for class sessions or assigned reading on teams might include:

  1. Elements of a cooperative team
  2. Stages of team life (e.g. Tuckman’s stages of team development)
  3. Communication skills for teams

Elements of a Cooperative Team

What is a team?  A Team is two or more people, working together, on a Common Goal (or goals) (A. Macpherson). Groups become teams when a goal is in place, and the team attends to both interpersonal and task-related functions.

Johnson et al., (1991) identified five key elements that characterize successful cooperative teams.

  1. Positive interdependence:  The group understands that they will “sink or swim” together, depending on each other to achieve a common goal.  A team with positive interdependence focuses on establishing strong group performance, creates common goals, and shares resources and expertise that contribute to reaching that goal.
  2. Individual accountability:  Each team member takes on responsibility for meeting their part of the team’s goal.  Each team member produces work that meets the agreed upon quality and quantity standards that the group has set.
  3. Promotive interaction (face to face or online):  Team members help and support each others’ efforts to learn.  This can occur during face to face meetings, or in virtual settings as agreed upon by the team.
  4. Interpersonal communication skills:  Successful teams put into practice the skills they have learned about leadership, building trust, active listening, respecting diversity, communication, and problem solving.
  5. Group processing: At the end of a work period, the group evaluates its own performance.  Questions to ask include: (1) What did each group member to to support the success of the team? (2) What could each group member do to make the group work better?

Stages of Team Life

Small groups have to start somewhere. Even established groups go through changes as members come and go, as tasks are started and completed, and as relationships change. In this section, we will learn about the stages of group development, which are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). As with most models of communication phenomena, although we order the stages and discuss them separately, they are not always experienced in a linear fashion. Additionally, some groups don’t experience all five stages, may experience stages multiple times, or may experience more than one stage at a time.
Forming
During the forming stage, group members begin to reduce uncertainty associated with new relationships and/or new tasks through initial interactions that lay the foundation for later group dynamics. Groups return to the forming stage as group members come and go over the life span of a group. Although there may not be as much uncertainty when one or two new people join a group as there is when a group first forms, groups spend some time in the forming stage every time group membership changes.
Given that interpersonal bonds are likely not yet formed and people are unfamiliar with the purpose of the group or task at hand, there are high levels of uncertainty in the group. Early stages of role negotiation begin and members begin to determine goals for the group and establish rules and norms. Group cohesion also begins to form during this stage. Group cohesion refers to the commitment of members to the purpose of the group and the degree of attraction among individuals within the group (Hargie, 2011). The cohesion that begins in this stage sets the group on a trajectory influenced by group members’ feelings about one another and their purpose or task. Groups with voluntary membership may exhibit high levels of optimism about what the group can accomplish. Although the optimism can be motivating, unrealistic expectations can lead to disappointment, making it important for group members to balance optimism with realism. Groups with assigned or mandatory membership may include members that carry some degree of resentment toward the group itself or the goals of the group. These members can start the group off on a negative trajectory that will lessen or make difficult group cohesiveness. Groups can still be successful if these members are balanced out by others who are more committed to and positive in regards to the purpose of the group.
Many factors influence how the forming stage of group development plays out. The personalities of the individuals in the group, the skills that members bring, the resources available to the group, the group’s size, and the group’s charge all contribute to the creation of the early tone of and climate within a group (Ellis & Fisher, 1994). For example, more dominant personalities may take early leadership roles in the group that can affect subsequent decisions. Group members’ diverse skill sets and access to resources can also influence the early stages of role differentiation. In terms of size, the bonding that begins in the forming stage becomes difficult when the number of people within the group prevents every person from having a one-on-one connection with every other member of the group. Also, in larger groups, more dominant members tend to assert themselves as leaders and build smaller coalitions within the group, which can start the group on a trajectory toward more conflict during the upcoming storming stage (Ellis & Fisher, 1994).
When a group receives an external charge, meaning that the goal or purpose of the group is decided by people outside the group, there may be less uncertainty related to the task dimensions of the group. Additionally, decisions about what roles people will play, including group leaders and other decisions about the workings of the group, may come from the outside, which reduces some of the uncertainty inherent in the forming stage. Relational uncertainty can also be diminished when group members have preexisting relationships or familiarity with each other. Although the decreased uncertainty may be beneficial at this stage, too much imposed structure from the outside can create resentment or a feeling of powerlessness among group members. Therefore, a manageable amount of uncertainty is actually a good thing for group cohesion and productivity.
Storming
During the storming stage of group development, conflict emerges as people begin to perform their various roles, have their ideas heard, and negotiate where they fit in the group’s structure. The uncertainty present in the forming stage begins to give way as people begin to occupy specific roles and the purpose, rules, and norms of a group become clearer. Conflict develops when some group members aren’t satisfied with the role that they or others are playing or the decisions regarding the purpose or procedures of the group. For example, if a leader begins to emerge or is assigned during the forming stage, some members may feel that the leader is imposing his or her will on other members of the group. Leaders should expect some degree of resentment from others who wanted to be the leader, have interpersonal conflicts with the leader, or just have general issues with being led.
Although the word storming and the concept of conflict have negative connotations, conflict can be positive and productive. Just like storms can replenish water supplies and make crops grow, storming can lead to group growth. While conflict is inevitable and should be experienced by every group, a group that gets stuck at the storming stage will likely not have much success in completing its task or achieving its purpose. Influences from outside the group can also affect the conflict in the storming stage. Interpersonal conflicts that predate the formation of the group may distract the group from the more productive idea- or task-oriented conflict that can be healthy for the group and increase the quality of ideas, decision making, and output.
Norming
During the norming stage of group development, the practices and expectations of the group are solidified, which leads to more stability, productivity, and cohesion within the group. Group norms are behaviours that become routine but are not explicitly taught or stated. In short, group norms help set the tone for what group members ought to do and how they ought to behave (Ellis & Fisher, 1994). Many implicit norms are derived from social norms that people follow in their everyday life. Norms within the group about politeness, lateness, and communication patterns are typically similar to those in other contexts. Sometimes a norm needs to be challenged because it is not working for the group, which could lead a group back to the storming stage. Other times, group members challenge norms for no good reason, which can lead to punishment for the group member or create conflict within the group.

At this stage, there is a growing consensus among group members as to the roles that each person will play, the way group interactions will typically play out, and the direction of the group. Leaders that began to emerge have typically gained the support of other group members, and group identity begins to solidify. The group may now be recognizable by those on the outside, as slogans, branding, or patterns of interaction become associated with the group. This stage of group development is key for the smooth operation of the group. Norms bring a sense of predictability and stability that can allow a group to move on to the performing stage of group development. Norms can also bring with them conformity pressures that can be positive or negative. In general, people go along with a certain amount of pressure to conform out of a drive to avoid being abnormal that is a natural part of our social interaction (Ellis & Fisher, 1994). Too much pressure, however, can lead people to feel isolated and can create a negative group climate.

Explicit rules may also guide group interaction. Rules are explicitly stated guidelines for members and may refer to things like expected performance levels or output, attitudes, or dress codes. Rules may be communicated through verbal instructions, employee handbooks, membership policies, or codes of conduct (Hargie, 2011). Groups can even use established procedures to manage the flow of conversations and decision-making procedures. Group members can contest or subvert group rules just as they can norms. Violations of group rules, however, typically result in more explicit punishments than do violations of norms.

Performing

During the performing stage of group development, group members work relatively smoothly toward the completion of a task or achievement of a purpose. Although interactions in the performing stage are task focused, the relational aspects of group interaction provide an underlying support for the group members. Socialization outside of official group time can serve as a needed relief from the group’s task. During task-related interactions, group members ideally begin to develop a synergy that results from the pooling of skills, ideas, experiences, and resources. Synergy is positive in that it can lead group members to exceed their expectations and perform better than they could individually. Glitches in the group’s performance can lead the group back to previous stages of group development. Changes in membership, member roles, or norms can necessitate a revisiting of aspects of the forming, storming, or norming stages. One way to continue to build group cohesion during the performing stage is to set short-term attainable group goals. Accomplishing something, even if it’s small, can boost group morale, which in turn boosts cohesion and productivity.

Adjourning

The adjourning stage of group development occurs when a group dissolves because it has completed its purpose or goal, membership is declining and support for the group no longer exists, or it is dissolved because of some other internal or external cause. Some groups may live on indefinitely and not experience the adjourning stage. Other groups may experience so much conflict in the storming stage that they skip norming and performing and dissolve before they can complete their task. For groups with high social cohesion, adjourning may be a difficult emotional experience. However, group members may continue interpersonal relationships that formed even after the group dissolves. In reality, many bonds, even those that were very close, end up fading after the group disbands. This doesn’t mean the relationship wasn’t genuine; interpersonal relationships often form because of proximity and shared task interaction. Once that force is gone, it becomes difficult to maintain friendships, and many fade away. For groups that had negative experiences, the adjourning stage may be welcomed.To make the most out of the adjourning stage, it is important that there be some guided and purposeful reflection. Many groups celebrate their accomplishments with a party or ceremony. Even groups that had negative experiences or failed to achieve their purpose can still learn something through reflection in the adjourning stage that may be beneficial for future group interactions. Often, group members leave a group experience with new or more developed skills that can be usefully applied in future group or individual contexts. Even groups that are relational rather than task focused can increase members’ interpersonal, listening, or empathetic skills or increase cultural knowledge and introduce new perspectives.

Communication Skills for Teams

Effective communication skills practiced within a team environment are the prime attributes of an effective team. While the methods may differ from team to team, the outcomes should include the following.

  1. Members acknowledge all contributions made with a serious intent.
  2. Members check to make sure they know what a speaker means before they agree or disagree with his or her contribution.
  3. Each member speaks only for themselves and lets others speak for themselves.
  4. Members view all contributions as belonging to the group, to use or not as the group decides.
  5. All members participate, but may do so in different and complementary ways.
  6. Whenever the group senses it is having trouble getting work done, it tries to find the reason.
  7. The group recognizes that what it does is what it has chosen to do. No group can avoid making decisions; it cannot choose whether to decide, only how to decide. Thus, an effective group makes decisions openly rather than by default.
  8. The group brings conflict into the open and deals with it.
  9. The group looks upon behaviour that hinders its work as happening because the group allows or even wants it; it is not just as the result of a problem member.
Which of this content would you introduce to students? How might you introduce it?  In the next section, you will explore other in-class activities to support students as they develop team skills.

References

Channon, S. B., Davis, R. C., Goode, N. T., & May, S. A. (2017). What makes a ‘good group’? Exploring the characteristics and performance of undergraduate student groups. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 22(1), 17–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-016-9680-y

Ellis, D.G. & Fisher, B.A. (1994). Small group decision making: Communication and the group process (4th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hargie, O. (2011). Skilled interpersonal interaction: Research, theory, and practice (5th Ed.). London: Routledge.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Interaction Book Co.

Tuckman, B.W. & Jensen, M.C. (1977). Stages of small-group development revisited. Group and organizational studies, 2(4): 419–27.

Resources to support instruction on team processes

Attribution

The Stages of Team Life section of this chapter is an adaptation of Chapter 8.2 “Team work” in “Introduction to Professional Communications” by M. Ashman and is used under a a CC-BY-NC 4.0 International license.

The Stages of Team Life section of this chapter is an adaptation of Chapter 13.2 “Small group development” in The Word on College Reading and Writing by M. Babin, C. Burnell, S. Pesznecker, N. Rosevear, and J. Wood and is used under a CC-BY-NC 4.0 International license.

The Communication Skills for Teams section of this chapter is adapted from work by Alice Macpherson.

License

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Facilitating Student Collaboration in Groups and Teams Copyright © 2020 by Kwantlen Polytechnic University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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